Noam Chomsky (1928 - ) is one of the most notable linguists in the 20th and 21st century. His study covers a wider area of research and thus he is called a philosopher and cognitive scientist as well. He is also known for his criticism against the government and the mass media, as well as for his anti-Vietnam war activism, which earned him more titles, social critic and political activist.
In this article, we will focus on his study in linguistics and introduce the theory he has stood for, together with some of the key words that characterize his achievement as a linguist.
Cognitive Revolution
In 1957, Chomsky published the monumental work, Syntactic Structure, which brought about the paradigm shift in the study of language. In fact, it changed the history of linguistics forever. Some calls this historic turn as the ¡ÈChomskyan revolution,¡É while Chomsky himself preferred the term ¡ÈCognitive revolution.¡É Researchers by that time had focused mainly on the study of behaviors, but their focus shifted to the study of internal mechanisms, such as reasoning or memories.
Linguistic Nativism vs. Linguistic Empiricism
There has been a continued argument regarding how human acquires language. Some advocates ¡Èinnateness hypothesis¡É and claims that we acquire language based on our innate linguistic ability, while others try to explain the mystery of language acquisition with reference to the mechanism of learning in general. Chomsky supports the former, criticizing that the behavioristic approach could never provide satisfactory explanation.
Behaviorism is a systematic approach by which psychologists study behaviors of humans or animals that are objectively observable. The advocates pay particular attention to the mechanism of stimulus-response and disregard the workings of consciousness or memories that are subjective in nature. B. F. Skinner (1904 – 1990), an American psychologist, sought to explain how we acquire language, employing the behavioristic framework. He published Verbal Behavior in 1957, to which Chomsky raised a criticism, pointing out that it is doubtful the approach taken by Skinner could fully explain the nature of language.
Plato¡Çs Problem
In what way, then, behaviorism cannot explain the nature of language? Plato, an ancient Greek philosopher, took up a mystery regarding how babies acquire language, which came to be known as ¡ÈPlato¡Çs problem.¡É Infants are exposed to the showers of language uttered by their parents or anybody who speaks to them. This is how they acquire language. One problem, however, is that the linguistic inputs they are given often contain lots of grammatical errors or incomplete sentences. In other words, they are given only a limited quantity (and quality) of inputs, i.e., stimulus, from which they are supposed to develop their linguistic ability. Nevertheless, most of them will be able to speak without any problems and to create an endless number of sentences. How is it possible? The behavioristic approach, which focuses on the interplay of stimulus-response, cannot provide a satisfactory answer to the Plato¡Çs problem.
Universal Grammar
Here is an answer proposed by Chomsky himself; infants are born with some knowledge of grammar equipped in their brain, and this makes it possible for them to develop their linguistic ability with no problem even if they are given only a limited quantity and quality of inputs. In other words, linguistic ability is not something that should be learned from scratch, but something that is innate and inherent in our brain. Chomsky claimed that we have this basic knowledge about grammar in our brain that is universal across all individual languages, whether it is Japanese, English, French, Sanskrit, or Afrikaans. This universal grammar is what makes it possible for us human to produce countless numbers of sentences.
Generative Grammar
The theory proposed by Chomsky came to be known as generative grammar. He insisted that we should distinguish between linguistic performance, the actual use of language, and linguistic competence, our ability to use language, and that linguists should studied the latter. In other words, he focused on the mechanism of how our brain ¡Ègenerates¡É sentences, based on our knowledge about grammar. He suggested that our linguistic knowledge is modular in nature, independent of other cognitive abilities, and that we have a mental organ that is responsible for producing language. Let us contrast this view with that of cognitive linguistics for clarification. Cognitive linguists argue that our linguistic ability shares the same mechanism with other modes of cognition, such as sight or hearing, and thus we should take into account the relationship between our linguistic ability and other cognitive functions if we are to study the nature of language. In contrast, those who advocate generative grammar insist that we should separate our linguistic ability from other modes of cognition for the proper study of language.
D-structure and S-structure
Generative grammar claims that in order to understand the essential structure, or the rules governing language, we should not just focus on the surface but should dig deeper. Here are two examples from Japanese:
(1) µÊÃãŹ¤Î¼ç¿Í¤¬¸µÄ®¾¦Å¹³¹¤ÇÈȿͤ餷¤Ãˤò¸«¤¿¤½¤¦¤À¡£
¡ÈThe shopkeeper saw a man who could possibly be a suspect in the shopping arcade.¡É
(2) ¸µÄ®¾¦Å¹³¹¤Ç¡¢Èȿͤ餷¤Ãˤò¡¢µÊÃãŹ¤Î¼ç¿Í¤¬¸«¤¿¤½¤¦¤À¡£
¡ÈIn the shopping arcade, a man who could possibly be a suspect, the shopkeeper saw.¡É
A native speaker of Japanese could tell instinctively that the first example represents the basic structure, from which the second was derived (the second example highlights the information regarding where the man was spotted, namely, ¡Èin the shopping arcade¡É). The first sentence is labeled as a D-structure, and the second, which has resulted from transformation of the first, is called S-structure (*1). In our brain exist the D-structure sentences that are created from our knowledge of grammar and lexicons, and after they undergo the process of transformation, various kinds of S-structure sentences are produced.
*1 Chomsky originally used the term deep structure and surface structure, but since they both have a metaphorical connotation, ¡Èprofound¡É and ¡Èsuperficial,¡É he chose to do away with them and to use abstract and mechanical terms instead: D-structure and S-structure.
Chomsky¡Çs Contribution
One of the most significant contributions made by Chomsky is that he established linguistics as legitimate science. Linguistics before him were mainly concerned with describing individual languages, classifying them into language families, and reconstructing proto-languages. Their ultimate goal was to bring back the original language, whatever that may be. This approach might be useful for classifying languages into certain groups based on their characteristics, but could not explain the mechanism of how our brain produces language and how we come to use it. In other words, the classical linguistics could not come any closer to the nature of humanity that is characterized by its unique ability to produce and use language. Chomsky, on the other hand, chose to focus not on the superficial diversity of language, but on our knowledge about grammar that is universal and inherent in all the languages. He then discovered that human language has a basic structural rule that governs the production of a countless number of various sentences by way of the transformational process.
The study of language, Chomsky claims, could lead us to a discovery of the principle that governs the structure and use of language, that is no historical coincidence but universal due to our biological necessity, and that ultimately arose from our unique mind as homo sapience.
Chomsky is now 93 years old (as of May 2022), and still vigorously publishing his opinions through essays or interviews, which are mainly about criticism of the government or suggestions for the society. As expressed in the title of his book in 2017, The Responsibility of Intellectuals, we can see that he is keenly aware of his responsibility as an intellectual. You can visit his website (https://chomsky.info) to learn more about him.
References (all in Japanese)
Chomsky, Noam (1975) Reflections on Language. Fontana. [translation by Inoue, Kazuko et al.]
Sakai, Kunihiro (2002) The Brain Science of Language: How Does Brain Produce Language? Chuko-Sinsho.
Nishihara, Tetsuo [ed.] (2012) Introduction to Linguistics. Asakura Shoten.
Nishimitsu, Yoshihiro [ed.] (1999) Introduction to English Studies. Kuroshio Shuppan.
Nishimura, Yoshiki [ed.] (2018) Cognitive Grammar I. Taishukan Shoten.
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