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µ­»ö¹¹¿·Æü¡§2022/07/26

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 ¡ý¥á¥¿¥â¥Ç¥ë¡ÊThe Meta-model¡Ë
 ¡ý¥Ð¡¼¥Ð¥ë¡¦¥Ñ¥Ã¥±¡¼¥¸¡ÊThe Verbal Package¡Ë
 ¡ýÌÀ³Î¥â¥Ç¥ë¡ÊThe Precision Model¡Ë
 ¡ý¥Õ¥¡¡¼¥ê¡¼Ä©È¯¥â¥Ç¥ë¡ÊThe Farrelley provocations¡Ë

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Language skills: Meta model / precision / verbal package / Farrelley provocations

Historically,
the first model of NLP was the meta-model. The meta-model is, to the best of ourknowledge, the first complete verbal specification modelcreared for our species. By specification model, we are referring to the ability of a person receiving information toquickly and effectively get the provider of the information to ground¡Êor specify¡Ëwhat they intend by what theysay¡Ýin concrete terms. This method leads naturally to analignment of the internal maps of the members of the company applying it totheir verbal exchanges. These internal maps are thesource of the behaviors displayed by the members of the company.

The Verbal Package uses a syntactic method for identifying and challenging the missing and inadequately specified elements in any verbal communication, independent of content. Its purpose is to recover deleted elements in verbal behavior and to challenge the structure of the thinking and mapping patterns implicit in what people say. More simply, the point of the meta-model is to reconnect the linguistic representations with the experiences that these utterances purport to refer to. This is accomplished by identifying the syntactic structures generated in the speech patterns and to insist through precise questioning that the source of the information extracts from his or her internal maps the missing and poorly specified elements and make them concrete.

The meta-model was created in the early and mid-1970s by John Grinder and Richard Bandler. It has two offspring: the Precision Model¡Ê1980¡Ëby John Grinder and Mike McMasters and the Verbal Package by Carmen Bostic and John Grinder with a special focus on application in business contexts. Each of successors to the meta-model represents a simplification of the original meta-model, the Verbal Package is the most radical of these simplifications.

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µ­»ö¹¹¿·Æü¡§2022/07/02 

Noam Chomsky and his Contributions in Linguistics


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Noam Chomsky (1928 - ) is one of the most notable linguists in the 20th and 21st century. His study covers a wider area of research and thus he is called a philosopher and cognitive scientist as well. He is also known for his criticism against the government and the mass media, as well as for his anti-Vietnam war activism, which earned him more titles, social critic and political activist.

 

In this article, we will focus on his study in linguistics and introduce the theory he has stood for, together with some of the key words that characterize his achievement as a linguist.

 

Cognitive Revolution

In 1957, Chomsky published the monumental work, Syntactic Structure, which brought about the paradigm shift in the study of language. In fact, it changed the history of linguistics forever. Some calls this historic turn as the ¡ÈChomskyan revolution,¡É while Chomsky himself preferred the term ¡ÈCognitive revolution.¡É Researchers by that time had focused mainly on the study of behaviors, but their focus shifted to the study of internal mechanisms, such as reasoning or memories.

 

Linguistic Nativism vs. Linguistic Empiricism

There has been a continued argument regarding how human acquires language. Some advocates ¡Èinnateness hypothesis¡É and claims that we acquire language based on our innate linguistic ability, while others try to explain the mystery of language acquisition with reference to the mechanism of learning in general. Chomsky supports the former, criticizing that the behavioristic approach could never provide satisfactory explanation.

 

Behaviorism is a systematic approach by which psychologists study behaviors of humans or animals that are objectively observable. The advocates pay particular attention to the mechanism of stimulus-response and disregard the workings of consciousness or memories that are subjective in nature. B. F. Skinner (1904 – 1990), an American psychologist, sought to explain how we acquire language, employing the behavioristic framework. He published Verbal Behavior in 1957to which Chomsky raised a criticism, pointing out that it is doubtful the approach taken by Skinner could fully explain the nature of language.

 

Plato¡Çs Problem

In what way, then, behaviorism cannot explain the nature of language? Plato, an ancient Greek philosopher, took up a mystery regarding how babies acquire language, which came to be known as ¡ÈPlato¡Çs problem.¡É Infants are exposed to the showers of language uttered by their parents or anybody who speaks to them. This is how they acquire language. One problem, however, is that the linguistic inputs they are given often contain lots of grammatical errors or incomplete sentences. In other words, they are given only a limited quantity (and quality) of inputs, i.e., stimulus, from which they are supposed to develop their linguistic ability. Nevertheless, most of them will be able to speak without any problems and to create an endless number of sentences. How is it possible? The behavioristic approach, which focuses on the interplay of stimulus-response, cannot provide a satisfactory answer to the Plato¡Çs problem.

 

Universal Grammar

Here is an answer proposed by Chomsky himself; infants are born with some knowledge of grammar equipped in their brain, and this makes it possible for them to develop their linguistic ability with no problem even if they are given only a limited quantity and quality of inputs. In other words, linguistic ability is not something that should be learned from scratch, but something that is innate and inherent in our brain. Chomsky claimed that we have this basic knowledge about grammar in our brain that is universal across all individual languages, whether it is Japanese, English, French, Sanskrit, or Afrikaans. This universal grammar is what makes it possible for us human to produce countless numbers of sentences.

 

Generative Grammar

The theory proposed by Chomsky came to be known as generative grammar. He insisted that we should distinguish between linguistic performance, the actual use of language, and linguistic competence, our ability to use language, and that linguists should studied the latter. In other words, he focused on the mechanism of how our brain ¡Ègenerates¡É sentences, based on our knowledge about grammar. He suggested that our linguistic knowledge is modular in nature, independent of other cognitive abilities, and that we have a mental organ that is responsible for producing language. Let us contrast this view with that of cognitive linguistics for clarification. Cognitive linguists argue that our linguistic ability shares the same mechanism with other modes of cognition, such as sight or hearing, and thus we should take into account the relationship between our linguistic ability and other cognitive functions if we are to study the nature of language. In contrast, those who advocate generative grammar insist that we should separate our linguistic ability from other modes of cognition for the proper study of language.

 

D-structure and S-structure

Generative grammar claims that in order to understand the essential structure, or the rules governing language, we should not just focus on the surface but should dig deeper. Here are two examples from Japanese:

 
(1) µÊÃãŹ¤Î¼ç¿Í¤¬¸µÄ®¾¦Å¹³¹¤ÇÈȿͤ餷¤­Ãˤò¸«¤¿¤½¤¦¤À¡£
¡ÈThe shopkeeper saw a man who could possibly be a suspect in the shopping arcade.¡É

(2) 
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¡ÈIn the shopping arcade, a man who could possibly be a suspect, the shopkeeper saw.¡É

 

A native speaker of Japanese could tell instinctively that the first example represents the basic structure, from which the second was derived (the second example highlights the information regarding where the man was spotted, namely, ¡Èin the shopping arcade¡É). The first sentence is labeled as a D-structure, and the second, which has resulted from transformation of the first, is called S-structure (*1). In our brain exist the D-structure sentences that are created from our knowledge of grammar and lexicons, and after they undergo the process of transformation, various kinds of S-structure sentences are produced.

 

*1 Chomsky originally used the term deep structure and surface structure, but since they both have a metaphorical connotation, ¡Èprofound¡É and ¡Èsuperficial,¡É he chose to do away with them and to use abstract and mechanical terms instead: D-structure and S-structure.

 

Chomsky¡Çs Contribution

One of the most significant contributions made by Chomsky is that he established linguistics as legitimate science. Linguistics before him were mainly concerned with describing individual languages, classifying them into language families, and reconstructing proto-languages. Their ultimate goal was to bring back the original language, whatever that may be. This approach might be useful for classifying languages into certain groups based on their characteristics, but could not explain the mechanism of how our brain produces language and how we come to use it. In other words, the classical linguistics could not come any closer to the nature of humanity that is characterized by its unique ability to produce and use language. Chomsky, on the other hand, chose to focus not on the superficial diversity of language, but on our knowledge about grammar that is universal and inherent in all the languages. He then discovered that human language has a basic structural rule that governs the production of a countless number of various sentences by way of the transformational process.

 

The study of language, Chomsky claims, could lead us to a discovery of the principle that governs the structure and use of language, that is no historical coincidence but universal due to our biological necessity, and that ultimately arose from our unique mind as homo sapience.

 

Chomsky is now 93 years old (as of May 2022), and still vigorously publishing his opinions through essays or interviews, which are mainly about criticism of the government or suggestions for the society. As expressed in the title of his book in 2017, The Responsibility of Intellectuals, we can see that he is keenly aware of his responsibility as an intellectual. You can visit his website (https://chomsky.info) to learn more about him.

 

References (all in Japanese)

Chomsky, Noam (1975) Reflections on Language. Fontana. [translation by Inoue, Kazuko et al.]

Sakai, Kunihiro (2002) The Brain Science of Language: How Does Brain Produce Language? Chuko-Sinsho.

Nishihara, Tetsuo [ed.] (2012) Introduction to Linguistics. Asakura Shoten.

Nishimitsu, Yoshihiro [ed.] (1999) Introduction to English Studies. Kuroshio Shuppan.

Nishimura, Yoshiki [ed.] (2018) Cognitive Grammar I. Taishukan Shoten. 



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Noam Chomsky and his Contributions in Linguistics


Noam Chomsky (1928 - ) is one of the most notable linguists in the 20th and 21st century. His study covers a wider area of research and thus he is called a philosopher and cognitive scientist as well. He is also known for his criticism against the government and the mass media, as well as for his anti-Vietnam war activism, which earned him more titles, social critic and political activist.

 

In this article, we will focus on his study in linguistics and introduce the theory he has stood for, together with some of the key words that characterize his achievement as a linguist.

 

Cognitive Revolution

In 1957, Chomsky published the monumental work, Syntactic Structure, which brought about the paradigm shift in the study of language. In fact, it changed the history of linguistics forever. Some calls this historic turn as the ¡ÈChomskyan revolution,¡É while Chomsky himself preferred the term ¡ÈCognitive revolution.¡É Researchers by that time had focused mainly on the study of behaviors, but their focus shifted to the study of internal mechanisms, such as reasoning or memories.

 

Linguistic Nativism vs. Linguistic Empiricism

There has been a continued argument regarding how human acquires language. Some advocates ¡Èinnateness hypothesis¡É and claims that we acquire language based on our innate linguistic ability, while others try to explain the mystery of language acquisition with reference to the mechanism of learning in general. Chomsky supports the former, criticizing that the behavioristic approach could never provide satisfactory explanation.

 

Behaviorism is a systematic approach by which psychologists study behaviors of humans or animals that are objectively observable. The advocates pay particular attention to the mechanism of stimulus-response and disregard the workings of consciousness or memories that are subjective in nature. B. F. Skinner (1904 – 1990), an American psychologist, sought to explain how we acquire language, employing the behavioristic framework. He published Verbal Behavior in 1957, to which Chomsky raised a criticism, pointing out that it is doubtful the approach taken by Skinner could fully explain the nature of language.

 

Plato¡Çs Problem

In what way, then, behaviorism cannot explain the nature of language? Plato, an ancient Greek philosopher, took up a mystery regarding how babies acquire language, which came to be known as ¡ÈPlato¡Çs problem.¡É Infants are exposed to the showers of language uttered by their parents or anybody who speaks to them. This is how they acquire language. One problem, however, is that the linguistic inputs they are given often contain lots of grammatical errors or incomplete sentences. In other words, they are given only a limited quantity (and quality) of inputs, i.e., stimulus, from which they are supposed to develop their linguistic ability. Nevertheless, most of them will be able to speak without any problems and to create an endless number of sentences. How is it possible? The behavioristic approach, which focuses on the interplay of stimulus-response, cannot provide a satisfactory answer to the Plato¡Çs problem.

 

Universal Grammar

Here is an answer proposed by Chomsky himself; infants are born with some knowledge of grammar equipped in their brain, and this makes it possible for them to develop their linguistic ability with no problem even if they are given only a limited quantity and quality of inputs. In other words, linguistic ability is not something that should be learned from scratch, but something that is innate and inherent in our brain. Chomsky claimed that we have this basic knowledge about grammar in our brain that is universal across all individual languages, whether it is Japanese, English, French, Sanskrit, or Afrikaans. This universal grammar is what makes it possible for us human to produce countless numbers of sentences.

 

Generative Grammar

The theory proposed by Chomsky came to be known as generative grammar. He insisted that we should distinguish between linguistic performance, the actual use of language, and linguistic competence, our ability to use language, and that linguists should studied the latter. In other words, he focused on the mechanism of how our brain ¡Ègenerates¡É sentences, based on our knowledge about grammar. He suggested that our linguistic knowledge is modular in nature, independent of other cognitive abilities, and that we have a mental organ that is responsible for producing language. Let us contrast this view with that of cognitive linguistics for clarification. Cognitive linguists argue that our linguistic ability shares the same mechanism with other modes of cognition, such as sight or hearing, and thus we should take into account the relationship between our linguistic ability and other cognitive functions if we are to study the nature of language. In contrast, those who advocate generative grammar insist that we should separate our linguistic ability from other modes of cognition for the proper study of language.

 

D-structure and S-structure

Generative grammar claims that in order to understand the essential structure, or the rules governing language, we should not just focus on the surface but should dig deeper. Here are two examples from Japanese:

 
(1) µÊÃãŹ¤Î¼ç¿Í¤¬¸µÄ®¾¦Å¹³¹¤ÇÈȿͤ餷¤­Ãˤò¸«¤¿¤½¤¦¤À¡£
¡ÈThe shopkeeper saw a man who could possibly be a suspect in the shopping arcade.¡É

(2)
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¡ÈIn the shopping arcade, a man who could possibly be a suspect, the shopkeeper saw.¡É

 

A native speaker of Japanese could tell instinctively that the first example represents the basic structure, from which the second was derived (the second example highlights the information regarding where the man was spotted, namely, ¡Èin the shopping arcade¡É). The first sentence is labeled as a D-structure, and the second, which has resulted from transformation of the first, is called S-structure (*1). In our brain exist the D-structure sentences that are created from our knowledge of grammar and lexicons, and after they undergo the process of transformation, various kinds of S-structure sentences are produced.

 

*1 Chomsky originally used the term deep structure and surface structure, but since they both have a metaphorical connotation, ¡Èprofound¡É and ¡Èsuperficial,¡É he chose to do away with them and to use abstract and mechanical terms instead: D-structure and S-structure.

 

Chomsky¡Çs Contribution

One of the most significant contributions made by Chomsky is that he established linguistics as legitimate science. Linguistics before him were mainly concerned with describing individual languages, classifying them into language families, and reconstructing proto-languages. Their ultimate goal was to bring back the original language, whatever that may be. This approach might be useful for classifying languages into certain groups based on their characteristics, but could not explain the mechanism of how our brain produces language and how we come to use it. In other words, the classical linguistics could not come any closer to the nature of humanity that is characterized by its unique ability to produce and use language. Chomsky, on the other hand, chose to focus not on the superficial diversity of language, but on our knowledge about grammar that is universal and inherent in all the languages. He then discovered that human language has a basic structural rule that governs the production of a countless number of various sentences by way of the transformational process.

 

The study of language, Chomsky claims, could lead us to a discovery of the principle that governs the structure and use of language, that is no historical coincidence but universal due to our biological necessity, and that ultimately arose from our unique mind as homo sapience.

 

Chomsky is now 93 years old (as of May 2022), and still vigorously publishing his opinions through essays or interviews, which are mainly about criticism of the government or suggestions for the society. As expressed in the title of his book in 2017, The Responsibility of Intellectuals, we can see that he is keenly aware of his responsibility as an intellectual. You can visit his website (https://chomsky.info) to learn more about him.

 

References (all in Japanese)

Chomsky, Noam (1975) Reflections on Language. Fontana. [translation by Inoue, Kazuko et al.]

Sakai, Kunihiro (2002) The Brain Science of Language: How Does Brain Produce Language? Chuko-Sinsho.

Nishihara, Tetsuo [ed.] (2012) Introduction to Linguistics. Asakura Shoten.

Nishimitsu, Yoshihiro [ed.] (1999) Introduction to English Studies. Kuroshio Shuppan.

Nishimura, Yoshiki [ed.] (2018) Cognitive Grammar I. Taishukan Shoten. 



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Deletion ¡¼ Grammatical and Ungrammatical


One of the three universal processes of human modeling is deletion. This process occurs at the neurological level, the social level and the levels of individual experience (see Magic­µ, Chapter 1, for more detailed discussion). Our sensory apparatus detects and reports on changes in the patterns of energy only within narrow ranges. For example, the human ear shows phenomenal amplitude sensitivity even to displacement of the eardrum the diameter of a hydrogen aotm (Noback, 1967, p.156). It responds to wavelengths only between 20 and 20,000 cycles per second. Thus, patterns of energy ¡¼ potential sounds ¡¼ above 20,000 cycles per second are not avaiable to us to assist us in organizing our experience. In other words, our nervous systems delete all of the patterns above 20,000 cycles per second.

At the level of patterning of language, transformational linguists have identified a number of specific patterens of deletion witch occur between the full linguistic representation ¡¼ Deep Structure ¡¼ and the actual sentences used by us in our communication ¡¼ Sueface Structure. 

¡ÊPatterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H. Erickson, M.D. Volume­µ p.182-183¡Ë


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PAST¡ÊBREAK [someone, window, with something] ¡Ë
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(a) Some event occurred in the past;
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(b) The event was complex event;
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(c) It consisted of the following parts:
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An action, break, which occurred between:
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a. ¼çÂΡÊThe agent¡Ë
¡Ýsome person or thing doing the breaking, here represented by somone, and
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b. ÂоݡÊThe object¡Ë
¡Ýsome person or thing being broken, here represented by the window, and
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c. ¼êÃÊ¡ÊThe instrument¡Ë
¡Ýthe thing used to do the breaking, here represented by with something.
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To this date, the most thoroughly studied and best understood of the human representational systems (models) is natural language. Transformational grammaris explicit, formal, and the most complete model of human language systems.Transformational grammarians have extracted some of the patterns of thisrepresentational system which are common to all languages. Therefore, transformational grammar is a Meta-model; that is, a model of model, or a model of language.

Transformational grammarians have built an explicit representation of theintuitions which people demonstrate when communicating and understanding naturallanguage. For example, each sentence of every natural language has two distinctrepresentations: the representation of the way it actually sounds (or, if written,by the way it actually appears) called the Surface Structure, and the representation of its meaning without our conscious awareness. which is called the Deep Structure. When a person utters the sentence:


The window was broken.

 

The Surface Structure is the representation of the actual sounds made by the person speaking or, in the case of a written representation, the words written outabove. In addition to this representation, this sentence is associated withanother representation which is the meaning it has ¡Ý Deep Structure. In this case, the DeepStructure can be represented as:

 

PAST (BREAK [someone, window, withsomething])

 

This Deep Structure representation is designed to capture the intuitions which eachof us have as native speakers of English when we hear the Surface Structure presented above. We understand that:

 

(a) Some event occurred in the past;

(b) The event was a complex event;

(c) It consisted of the following parts:

 

Anaction, break, which occurred between:


a.The agent
¡Ýsome person or thingdoing the breaking, here represented by someone, and


b.The object
¡Ýsome person or thingbeing broken, here represented by the window, and


c.The instrument
¡Ýthe thing used to do the breaking, here represented by with something.

 

Noticethat, even though not all of the parts of the Deep Structure represented appearin the Surface Structure (in this case the agent and the instrument are not represented in the Surface Structure), the native speaker of English has that information available in his understanding of the sentence. The statement The window wasbroken implies to native speakers that not only was the window broken but someone or something had to break the window with something. The waysin which Surface Structures can differ from their associated Deep Structure meanings is the research domain of transformational linguists. They have postulateda series of formal mapping operations called transformations which preciselyspecify how Deep and Surface Structures may differ. The entire process which links a Deep Structure to its Surface Structure(s) is called derivation (see page 10).

 

Explicit, formal models of each Surface Structure¡ÝDeep Structure relationship can be made on the above model. (Youmust make this important distinction in order to understand the unconscious processing of language that occurs in hypnosis.) Transformational linguists,therefore, have taken an incredibly complex area of human behavior and built aformal model of it which explicitly represents the rules of behavior which are intuitively demonstrated, although not consciously understood, by native speakers of that language.

 

The authors (Bandler/Grinder) have used the approach of formalizing intuitions tobuild an explicit, formal model of the language exchange in psychotherapy. Whatwe did was to create a formal representation of the intuitions which effective therapists from every school of psychotherapy use in their work, although theyare not necessarily conscious of it. (This Meta-model of therapy is fully explained in 'The Structure of Magic I'.)

 

We used our formalization techniques to explore and understand the other representational systems used by human beings to organize and create models oftheir experience. These kinesthetic, visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatorymaps of experience were then used as a basis to expand our model of therapy.The results were both fascinating and useful.

¡ÊPatterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H. Erickson, M.D. Volume­µ, p.6-9¡Ë










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1515960











The Map Is Not the Territory


In the authors' experience, people who use hypnosis for medical, dental, or psychotherapeutic purposes seem more than any other single group to understand that we, as human beings, do not operate behaviorally 'directly' upon the world, but rather we operate through a map or model (a created representation) of what we 'believe' theworld to be. A thorough understanding of how people in general, and each clientin particular, create a representation of the world in which they live willyield the practitioner of hypnosis many advantages. Among these will be greater speed in trance induction, more success with a greater number of subjects, anddeeper trances. For additional study of the processes by which people create models of the world, were commend 'The Structure of MagicI and II'.

For our purposes here, we wish now to provide you with only a basic model of the processes by which people create models of the world.

First, the models that we as humans create will differ from the world of reality in three major ways. Some parts of our experience will be deleted, not represented in our model. This is both a necessary and sometimes impoverishing aspect of our modeling processes. If we tried to represent every piece of sensory input, we would be overwhelmed with data. However, when we fail to represent an important or vitala spect, the results can be devastating. In anyevent, we do delete parts of our experience when creating models of the world.These deletions, and all of the processes of modeling, go on all the time and, for the most part, without our conscious awareness.

The second way in which our model of the world will be different from the world itself is through distortions. Distortion is a modeling process which allows us to make shifts in ourexperience of sensory data. For example, we can fantasize a green cow, eventhough we have never experienced one with our senses, We can distort our experience and plan the future by imagining that it is now. This modeling process can be an asset or a liability, depending upon how it is used.

The third process of modeling is generalization. This is the process by which one element of our model of the world comes to represent an entire category of which it is only an example. This allows us to know that when weread a book, by moving our eves from left to right, we will be able to extractthe content. When we are confronted with a door just like any other door, even though we have not seen this particular door before, we make the assumption itwill open by the same process we have used before. Generalizations in our modelof the world allow us to operate more efficiently from context to context. Generalizational so allows us to keep recoding our experiences at higher levels of patterning.This makes possible the advances in knowledge and technology ¡Ý in all areas of human functioning. 
¡ÊPatterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H. Erickson, M.D. Volume­µ, p.7-8¡Ë

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Patterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H. Erickson, M.D



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Richard Bandler
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